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SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER IN TERMS OF UNIT AT 200 C .4.180 JOULES t C. Joules. s. h. Rowland. o 4.208 1.0094 0 0 50 4.202 1.0054. 5.037 5'037 I0 4.191 1.0027 10.056 10.058 15 4.184 1.0011 15'065 15.068 2o 4.180 1.0000 20.068 20.071 25 4.177 0.9992 25.065 25.067 30 4'175 0'9987 30.060 30.057 35 4'173 0'9983 35'052 35'053 400 4'173 0'99$2 40.044 500 4'175 0'9987 50.028 6o 4.18o 1.0000 60.020 7o 4.187 1oo16 70.028 8o 4'194 1.0033 80.052 90 4.202 1.0053 90.095 Shaw too 4.211 1.0074 100.158 Regnault
12o 4.231 I.012I 120.35 120.73 140 4.254 1.0176 140.65 140.88 16o 4.280 1.0238 161.07 161.20 18o 4.309 1.0308 181.62 182.14 zoo 4'341 1.0384 202.33 220 4.376 1.0467 223.20 to allow for the increase in the specific heat below 2o C. This was estimated in 1899 as being equivalent to the addition of the constant quantity oo2o to the values of the total heat h of the liquid as reckoned by the parabolic formula
formula
The unit of comparison in the following table is taken as the specific heat of water at 2o C. for the reasons given below. This unit is taken as being 4.180 joules per gramme-degree-centigrade on the scale of the platinum thermometer, corrected to the absolute scale as explained in the article THERMOMETRY , which has been shown to be practically equivalent to the hydrogen scale. The value 4.180 joules at 2o C. is the mean between Rowland's corrected result 4.181 and the value 4.179, deduced from the experiments of Reynolds and Moorby on the assumption that the ratio of the mean specific heat 0 to too to that at 20 is 1 oot6, as given by the formulae representing the results of Callendar and Barnes. This would indicate that Rowland's corrected values should, if anything, be lowered. In any case the value of the mechanical equivalent is uncertain to at least 1 in 2000.The mean specific heat, over any range of temperature, may be obtained by integrating the formulae between the limits required, or by taking the difference of the corresponding values of the total heat h, and dividing by the range of temperature. The quantity actually observed by Rowland was the total heat. It may be re-marked that starting from the same value at 5, for the sake of comparison, Rowland's values of the total heat agree to I in 5000 with those calculated from the formulae. The values of the total heat observed by Regnault
the method. The absolute value of the specific heat deduced necessarily depends on the absolute values of the electrical standards employed in the investigation. But for the determination of relative values of specific heats in terms of a standard liquid, or of the variations of specific heat of a liquid, the method depends only on the constancy of the standards, which can be readily and accurately tested. The absolute value of the E.M.F. of the Clark
special
15. Variation of Specific Heat of Water.-The question of the variation of the specific heat of water has a peculiar interest
thermometry . Regnault himself adopted the formula,method. Callendar has, however, devised a continuous method of mixture, which appears to be peculiarly adapted to the purpose, and promises to give more certain results. In any case it may be remarked that formulae such as those of Jamin, Henrichsen, Baumgartner, Winkelmann or Dieterici, which give far more rapid rates of increase than that of Regnault, cannot possibly be reconciled with his observations, or with those of Reynolds and Moorby, or Callendar and Barnes, and are certainly inapplicable above too C. 16. On the Choice of the Thermal Unit.So much uncertainty still prevails on this fundamental point that it cannot be passed over without reference. There are three possible kinds of unit, depending on the three fundamental methods already given: (t) the thermometric unit, or the thermal capacity of unit mass of a standard substance under given conditions of temperature and pressure on the scale of a standard thermometer. (2) The latent-heat unit, or the quantity of heat required to melt or vaporize unit mass of a standard substance under given conditions. This unit has the advantage of being independent of thermometry, but the applicability of these methods is limited to special
(t) for ordinary purposes.In any case it is necessary to define a thermometric unit of class (t). The standard substance must be a liquid. Water is always selected, although some less volatile liquid, such as aniline or mercury, would possess many advantages. With regard to the scale of temperature, there is very general agreement that the absolute scale as realized by the hydrogen or helium thermometer should be adopted as the ultimate standard of reference. But as the hydrogen thermometer is not directly available for the majority of experiments, it is necessary to use a secondary standard for the practical definition of the unit. The electrical resistance thermometer of platinum presents very great advantages for this purpose over the mercury thermometer in point of reproducibility, accuracy and adaptability to the practical conditions of experiment. The conditions of use of a mercury thermometer in a calorimetric experiment are necessarily different from those under which its corrections are determined, and this difference must inevitably give rise to constant errors in practical work. The primary consideration in the definition of a unit is to select that method which permits the highest order of accuracy in comparison and verification. For this reason the definition of the thermal unit will in the end probably be referred to a scale of temperature defined in terms of a standard platinum thermometer. There is more diversity of opinion with regard to the question of the standard temperature. Many authors, adopting Regnault's formula, have selected o C. as the standard temperature, but this cannot be practically realized in the case of water, and his formula is certainly erroneous at low temperatures. A favourite temperature to select is 4 C., the temperature of maximum density, since at this point the specific heat at constant volume is the same as that at constant pressure But this is really of no consequence, since the specific heat at constant volume cannot be practically realized. The specific heat at 4 could be accurately determined at the mean over the range o to 8 keeping the jacket at o C. But the change appears to be rather rapid near o, the temperature is inconveniently low for ordinary calorimetric work, and the unit at 4 would be so much larger than the specific heat at ordinary temperatures that nearly all experiments would require reduction. The natural point to select would be that of minimum specific heat, but if this occurs at 4o C. it would be inconveniently high for practical realization except by the continuous electrical method. It was proposed by a committee of the British Association to select the temperature at which the specific heat was 4.200 joules, leaving the exact temperature to be subsequently determined. It was supposed at the time, from the original
17. Specific Heat of Gases.In the case of solids and liquids under ordinary conditions of pressure, the external work of expansion is so small that it may generally be neglected; but with gases or vapours, or with liquids near the critical point, the external work becomes so large that it is essential to specify the conditions under which the specific heat is measured. The most important cases are, the specific heats (1) at constant volume; (2) at constant pressure; (3) at saturation pressure in thecase of a liquid or vapour. In consequence of the small thermal capacity of gases and vapours per unit volume at ordinary pressures, the difficulties of direct measurement are almost insuperable except in case (2). Thus the direct experimental evidence is somewhat meagre and conflicting, but the question of the relation of the specific heats of gases is one of great interest
Air, s =o 1715+0028d, End of Article: SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER IN TERMS OF UNIT AT 200 C If you wish, you can link directly to this article.
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