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Encyclopedia Britannica - Main :: MOL-MOS |
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MONGOLIA , a vast territory belonging to the Chinese empire, the administrative limits of which cannot be determined with precision. On the N. it is bounded by the frontier of Russia, beginning at Mount
Wall
Wall
Dzungaria
Mount
Geographically, Mongolia may thus be said to occupy both terraces of the great plateau of east Asia, which stretches in the south of Siberia, between the Sailughem range of the Great Altai and the Great Khinganwith the exception of the Dzungarian depression. From Manchuria and China it is separated by the border ridge
Dzungaria
North-western Mongolia was formerly represented as a region intersected by lofty mountain chains. It appears, however, from Russian explorations during the last third of the 19th North- century, that it has all the characteristics of an elevated western plateau, of a rhomboid shape (like Bohemia), bounded Mongolia. by four mountain ranges; namely, the Russian Altai on the N.W., the Sayans on the N.E., the Kentei range on the S.E., and the Ektagh Altai on the S.W. The border- ridge
recent
9250 ft. in 93 20' E.; farther east they become much lower. But while its southern foot stands in the Dzungarian trench, i.e. at altitudes of 1550 ft. only near Lake Ulungur, and at 3000 ft. in 9 E., its north-eastern foot rests on the high plateau, i.e. at 4260 ft. at Kobdo, 5410 at Oshku, 4070 at Orok-nor on the route from Kiakhta to Su-chow, and so on. Thus the Ektagh Altai is a true border-rangethat is, a lofty and steep escarpment facing the Dzungarian depression, with a gentle and relatively short slope towards the plateau. In the same way the Kentei (or Gentei) Mountains, as they are called, to the north of ia, and the Yablonoi Mountains of Transbaikalia, separate the hi er terrace of north-west Mongolia (drained by the tributaries of the Selenga) from the lower terrace of the Gobi, which is drained by the upper tributaries of the Onon and the Kerulen, both belonging to the basin of the Amur. It is also very probable that the Tannu-ola Mountains north-east of Ubsa-nor, and the Khangai Mountains between Ulyasutai and the upper Orkhon, both running W.N.W. to E.S.E., border another slightly higher terrace of the same great plateau of north-west Mongolia, upon which Lake Kossogol lies, at an altitude of 5320 ft. On this vast upper terrace even the bottoms of the river valleys are at altitudes of 4200 to 5500 ft., with one single exceptionthe narrow gorge of the Khua (Khi)-khem, or upper Yenisei; while the highest pass across the Tannu-ola Mountains is 7090 ft., though the others are much lower. The conception of north-west Mongolia as a region filled with mountain ranges radiating from the Altai must thus be abandoned. It is a massive swelling of the earth's crust, representing the northern counterpart of the plateau of Tibet. This massive swelling is cut into, between the Ektagh Altai and the eastern T'ien-shan, by the relative depression of Tarbagatai and Dzungaria, 1500 to 3000 ft. in altitude; while to the south of the eastern T'ien-shan comes the Tarim depression, from 2200 to 3000 ft. high, and occupying an area of about 88,000 sq. m. Neither of these " depressions," however, penetrates beyond 94 E., and on the route from Kiakhta to Su-chow, in loo E., there is only one single place (42 N.) in which the altitude drops as low as 3300 ft.; everywhere else it varies between 4000 and 5000 ft. Lakes and Rivers.North-western Mongolia is well watered, and has in its western part a group of lakes which possess no outlet to the ocean, being in reality the rapidly desiccating remains of what were formerly much larger basins. The chief
Durga
inscriptions were discovered in the end of the 19th century, and cleverly deciphered by Professor V. Thomsen of Copenhagen.' The rivers which flow down the outer slopes of the border-ridges become lost in the Gobi shortly after entering it.A very large portion of north-west Mongolia constitutes a high plain, 3000 to 4200 ft. in altitude, which penetrates from the south-east in a north-western direction between the Ektagh Altai and the Khangai Mountains. It has a true Mongolian character, i.e. it is covered with gravel, and presents the appearance of a dry prairie devoid of forests. This same character is also exhibited by the bottoms of the broad valleys, while the more elevated and hilly portions of the territory, especially on their northern slopes, are covered with larch, cedar
Climate.Owing to its high altitude, north-western Mongolia is very cold, and the severity of the winter is intensified by the prevalence of cold but dry north-western winds. The north-east wind brings more moisture. In summer the warm winds come from the south and south-east, but having first to cross the Gobi, 1 See V. Thomsen, Inscriptions de l'0rkhon (Helsingfors, 1900)they are dried before they reach north-western Mongolia. The yearly amount of rain at Urga (altitude 4350 ft., at the northern foot of the Kentei Mountains) is only 91 in., and the average temperatures are: year27 F., January-18, July 64; a minimum of -35 F. has been observed. The climate of Ulyasutai (5400 ft.) may be taken as ty ical, its average temperatures being: year 31.6, January -12, my 66. The geology is stil very imperfectly known. The plateau is built up of granites, gneisses and crystalline schists of Archean and probably Primary age. Coal is known to exist to the south-east of Kobdo, in the Tannu-ola, and in the basin of the Yenisei, but its age is unknown (fresh-water Jurassic ?). Graphite and some silver ores have also been found. The fauna is a mixture of the Siberian and the Daurianthe latter penetrating up the valleys of the Selenga basin. The chief
South-eastern Mongolia is the part of Mongolia which lies on the eastern slope of the Great Khingan Mountains, entering like a wedge smith- between the lower course of the Nonni river and the S western middle Sungari. Chiefly owing to the dryness of climate, Mongolia. its physical characteristics are similar to those of Mongolia proper, except that the altitude of the plains is much lower. This portion of Mongolia is also much better watered, namely, by the Khatsyr, the Lao-ho and the Shara-muren, all flowing from the Khingan Mountains eastwards, and the last making the frontier between Mongolia and the Chinese province of Chihli. Population.The population of the whole of Mongolia is estimated at about 5,000,000. It consists of MongolsEastern Mongols and Kalmucks in the westvarious Turkish tribes, Chinese and Tunguses. The Mongols proper, with the exception of those who inhabit north-west Mongolia, may be divided into northern and southern (more properly north-western and south-eastern) Mongols. The former, belonging to the Khalkas, occupy the Gobi and the regions of the Kentei Mountains and Khingan Mountains, while the second, divided into numerous minor branches, roam over south-eastern and southern Mongolia. The principal occupation of the Mongols is cattle-breeding, and Russian writers estimate that on an average each yurta, or family, has about 50 sheep, 25 horses, 15 horned cattle and so camels. The transport of goods is their next most important occupation. It is calculated that 100,000 camels are used for the transport of tea only from Kalgan to Siberia, and that no less than 1,200,000 camels and 300,000 ox-carts are employed in the internal caravan trade. Agriculture is only carried on sporadically, chiefly in the south, where the Mongols have been taught by the Chinese. Various domestic industries are also carried on. The trade is chiefly concentrated at Urga, Ulyasutai and Kobdo in north-west Mongolia; Kalgan, Kuku-khoto, Kuku-erghi, Dolon-nur and Biru-khoto in southern and south-eastern Mongolia; and at Kerulen in the north-east. Administration.Before the Manchurian conquest the Mongols were governed by their own feudal princes, who regarded themselves as being descended from seven different ancestors, all, however of the same kin. Each group of principalities constituted a separate aimak, and each principality a separate hoshun. Under Manchu rule the aimaks became converted into the same number of military corps, each composed of so many hoshuns as military units. Each of these again was divided into sumuns or squadrons, each containing 150 families. In case a hoshun contained more than 6 sumuns, every 6 of the latter were organized into a regimenttsalan. Four Manchu tsian-tsuns, or governor-generals, acted as chiefs of the troops, and the prince of each aimak, nominated from Peking, was considered as the lieutenant or assistant of his respective Manchu chief. The hoshuns were subject to their own princes, each of whom had a military adviser, generally a Manchu. Their internal or tribal affairs were in the hands of the princes, those which concerned a whole aimak being settled at gatherings of the princes under the eldest of them, named khan. This organization was maintained by the Manchu rulers, the khan being elected from among the princes, and the latter having each an adviser, tusalakchi, nominated from Peking. Mongolia is now administered by a Lifan Yuen or superintendency with headquarters at Peking. Excluding the territory to which the name of Mongolia is geographically applied, but which is included in the provinces of Shansi and Chihli, Mongolia is divided into inner and outer divisions. Inner Mongolia,lying between the desert of Gobi, China proper and Manchuria, is divided into 24 aimaks. There are two military governors-general and two commissaries of the viceroy of Chihli, having control of civil matters. One of each pair of officials is stationed at Kalgan, and the other at Jehol. Outer Mongolia, the remainder of the territory, has 4 aimaks, three of which are under hereditary khans. There is a Chinese imperial agent at Urga. End of Article: MONGOLIA If you wish, you can link directly to this article.
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