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Encyclopedia Britannica - Main :: HAN-HEG |
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HEDONISM (Gr. i bovit, pleasure, from ?) (s, sweet, pleasant) , in ethics, a general term for all theories of conduct in which the criterion is pleasure of one kind or another. Hedonistic theories of conduct have been held from the earliest times, though they have been by no means of the same character. Moreover, hedonism has, especially by its critics, been very much misrepresented owing mainly to two simple misconceptions, In the first place hedonism may confine itself to the view that, as a matter of observed fact, all men do in practice make pleasure the criterion of action, or it may go further and assert that men ought to seek pleasure as the sole human good. The former statement takes no view as to whether or not there is any absolute good: it merely denies that men aim at anything more than pleasure. The latter statement admits an ideal, summum bonumnamely, pleasure. The second confusion is the tacit assumption that the pleasure of the hedonist is necessarily or characteristically of a purely physical kind; this assumption is in the case of some hedonistic theories a pure perversion of the facts. Practically all hedonists have argued that what are known as the " lower " pleasures are not only ephemeral in themselves but also productive of so great
The earliest and the most extreme type of hedonism is that of the Cyrenaic School as stated by Aristippus, who argued that the only good for man is the sentient pleasure of the moment. Since (following Protagoras) knowledge is solely of momentary sensations, it is useless to try, as Socrates recommended, to make calculations as to future pleasures, and to balance present enjoyment with disagreeable consequences. The true art of life is to crowd as much enjoyment as possible into every moment. This extreme or " pure " hedonism regarded as a definite philosophic theory practically died with the Cyrenaics, though the same spirit has frequently found expression in ancient and modern, especially poetical, literature.The confusion already alluded to between " pure " and " rational " hedonism is nowhere more clearly exemplified than in the misconceptions which have arisen as to the doctrine of the Epicureans. To identify Epicureanism with Cyrenaicism is a complete misunderstanding. It is true that pleasure is the summum bonum of Epicurus
control in the choice of pleasures with a view to reducing pain to a minimum is indispensable. " Of all this, the beginning, and the greatest good, is prudence." The negative side of Epicurean hedonism was developed to such an extent by some members of the school (see HEGESIAS) that the ideal life is held to be rather indifference to pain than positive enjoyment. This pessimistic attitude is far removed from the positive hedonism of Aristippus.Between the hedonism of the ancients and that of modern philosophers there lies a great
majority : the criterion is society, not the individual. Thus we pass from Egoistic to Universalistic hedonism, Utilitarianism
tissue " which will be " vitally efficient." Instead, therefore, of the criterion of " the greatest happiness of the greatest number," Stephen has that of the " health of the organism." Life is not " a series of detached acts, in each of which a man can calculate the sum of happiness or misery attainable by different courses." Each action must be regarded as directly bearing upon the structure of society.A criticism of the various hedonistic theories will be found in the article ErHIcs (ad fin.). See also, beside works quoted under CYRENAICS, EPICURUS
Manual
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