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GRAVITATION CONSTANT AND MEAN DENSITY OF THE EARTH The law of gravitation states that two masses M1 and M2, distant d from each other, are pulled together each with a force G. M1 M2/d2, where G is a constant for all kinds of matterthe gravitation constant. The acceleration of M2 towards Ml or the force exerted on it by M1 per unit of its mass is therefore GM1/d2. Astronomical observations of the accelerations of different planets towards the sun, or of different satellites towards the same primary, give us the most accurate confirmation of the distance part of the law. By comparing accelerations towards different bodies we obtain the ratios of the masses of those different bodies and, in so far as the ratios are consistent, we obtain confirmation of the mass part. But we only obtain the ratios of the masses to the mass of some one member of the system, say the earth. We do not find the mass in terms of grammes or pounds. In fact, astronomy gives .us the product GM, but neither G nor M. For example, the acceleration of the earth towards the sun is about o6 cm/sec.2 at a distance from it about 15X Io12 cm. The acceleration of the moon towards the earth is about 0.27 cm/sec.2 at a distance from it about 4X Io10 cm. If S is the mass of the sun and E the mass of the earth we have o6= GS/ (15Xio")2 and 0.27=GE/ (4Xlo')z giving us GS and GE, and the ratio S/E=3oo,000 roughly; but we do not obtain either S or E in grammes, and we do not find G. The aim of the experiments to be described here may be regarded either as the determination of the mass of the earth in grammes, most conveniently expressed by its mass-:-its volume, that is by its " mean density " A, or the determination of the " gravitation constant " G. Corresponding to these two aspects of the problem there are two modes of attack. Suppose that a body of mass m is suspended at the earth's surface where it is pulled with a force w vertically downwards by the earthits weight. At the same time let it be pulled with a force p by a measurable mass M which may be a mountain, or some measurable part of the earth's surface layers, or an artificially prepared mass brought near m, and let the pull of M be the same as if it were concentrated at a distance d. The earth pull may be regarded as the same as if the earth were all concentrated at its centre, distant R. Then w=G. aR3,Am/R2=G.,,rRRm, . . . . (I) and p=GMm/d2 (2) By division =Rp4ldz' ' If then we can arrange to observe w/p we obtain A, the mean density of the earth. But the same observations give us G also. For, putting m=w/g in (2), we get In the second mode of attack the pull p between two artificially prepared measured masses M1, M2 is determined when they are a distance d apart, and since p= G.M1M2/d2 we get at once G=pd2/M,M2. But we can also deduce A. For putting to= mg.-in (I) we get O= Experiments of the first class in which the pull of a known mass is compared with the pull of the earth may be termed experiments on the mean density of the earth, while experiments of the second class in which the pull between two known masses is We shall, however, adopt a slightly different classification for the purpose of describing methods of experiment, viz: I. Comparisonof the earth pull on a body with the pull of a natural mass as in the Schiehallion experiment. 2. Determination of the attraction between two artificial masses as in Cavendish's experiment. 3. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of an artificial mass as in experiments with the common balance. It is interesting to note that the possibility of gravitation experiments of this kind was first considered by Newton, and in both of the forms (I) and (2). In the System of the World (3rd ed., 1737, p. 40) he calculates that the deviation by a hemispherical mountain, of the earth's density and with radius 3 m., on a plumb-line at its side will be less than 2 minutes. He also calculates (though with an error in his arithmetic) the acceleration towards each other of two spheres each a foot in diameter and of the earth's density, and comes to the conclusion that in either case the effect is too small for measurement. In the Principia, bk. iii., prop. x., he makes a celebrated estimate that the earth's mean density is five or six times that of water. Adopting this estimate, the deviation by an actual mountain or the attraction of two terrestrial spheres would be of the orders calculated, and regarded by Newton as immeasurably small. Whatever method is adopted the force to be measured is very minute. This may be realized if we here anticipate the results of the experiments, which show that in round numbers A= 5.5 and G= 1/15,000,000 when the masses are in grammes and the distances in centimetres. Newton's mountain, which would probably have density about A/2 would deviate the plumb-line not much more than half a minute. Two spheres 3o cm. in diameter (about 1 ft.) and of density 11 (about that of lead) just not touching wo pull each other with a force rather less than 2 dyn6s and their acceleration would be such that they would move into contact if starting I cm. apart in rather over 400 seconds. From these examples it will be realized that in gravitation experiments extraordinary precautions must be adopted to eliminate disturbing forces which may easily rise to be comparable with the forces to be measured. We shall not attempt to give an account of these precautions, but only seek to set forth the general principles of the different experiments which have been made. I. Comparison of the Earth Pull with that of a Natural Mass. Bouguer's Experiments.The earliest experiments were made by Pierre Bouguer about 1740, and they are recorded in his Figure de la terre (1749). They were of two kinds. In the first he determined the length of the seconds pendulum, and thence g at different levels. Thus at Quito, which may be regarded as on a table-land 1466 toises (a toise is about 6.4 ft.) above sea-level, the seconds pendulum was less by 1/1331 than on the Isle of Inca at sea-level. But if there were no matter above the sea-level, the inverse square law would make the pendulum less by 1/1118 at the higher level. The value of g then at the higher level was greater than could be accounted for by the attraction of an earth ending at sea-level by the difference 1/I118-1/1331= I/6983, and this was put down to the attraction of the plateau 1466 toises high; or the attraction of the whole earth was 6983 times the attraction of the plateau. Using the rule, now known as " Young's rule," for the attraction of the plateau, Bouguer found that the density of the earth was 4.7 times that of the plateau, a result certainly much too large. In the second kind of experiment he attempted to measure the horizontal
iI z G=M wg. plumb-line will hang down exactly parallel to the observing telescope. If the mountain were away it would also hang parallel to the telescope at the first station when directed to the same star. But the mountain pulls the plumb-line towards it and the star appears to the north of the zenith and evidently mountain pull/earth pull = tan-gent of angle of displacement of zenith. Bouguer observed the meridian altitude of several stars at the two stations. There was still some deflection at the second station, a deflection which he estimated as 1/14 that at the first station, and he found on allowing for this that his observations gave a deflection of 8 seconds at the first station. From the form and size of the mountain he found that if its density were that of the earth the deflection should be 103 seconds, or the earth was nearly 13 times as dense as the mountain, a result several times too large. But the work was carried on under enormous difficulties owing to the severity of the weather, and no exactness could be expected. The importance of the experiment lay in its proof that the method was possible. Maskelyne's Experiment.In 1774 Nevil Maskelyne (Phil. Trans., 1775, p. 495) made an experiment on the deflection of the plumb-line by Schiehallion, a mountain in Perthshire, which has a short ridge
The computation of the attraction of the mountain on the supposition that its density was that of the earth was made by Charles Hutton from the results of the survey (Phil. Trans., 1978, p. 689), a computation carried out by ingenious and importane,''methods. He found that the deflection should have been greater in the ratio 17804 : 9933 say 9 : 5, whence the density of the earth comes out at 9/5 that of the mountain. Hutton took the density of the mountain at 2.5, giving the mean density of the earth 4.5. A revision of the density of the mountain from a careful survey of the rocks composing it was made by John Playfair many years later (Phil. Trans., 1811, p. 347), and the density of the earth was given as lying between 4'5588 and 4.867. Other experiments have been made on the attraction of mountains by Francesco Carlini (Milano Egon. Ast., 1824', p. 28) on Mt. Blanc in 1821, using the pendulum method after the manner of Bouguer, by Colonel Sir Henry James and Captain A. R. Clarke (Phil. Trans., 1856, p. 591), using the plumb-line deflection at Arthur's Seat, by T. C. Mendenhall (Amer. Jour. of Sci. xxi. p. 99), using the pendulum method on Fujiyama in Japan, and by E. D. Preston (U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey Rep., X893, p. 513) in Hawaii
Airy's Experiment.In 1854 Sir G. B. Airy (Phil. Trans.. 1856, p. 297) carried out at Harton pit near South Shields an experiment which he had attempted many years before in con-junction with W. Whewell and R. Sheepshanks at Dolcoath. This consisted in comparing gravity at the top and at the bottom of a mine by the swings of the same pendulum, and thence finding the ratio of the pull of the intervening strata to the pull of the whole earth. The principle of the method may be understood by assuming that the earth consists of concentric spherical shells each homogeneous, the last of thickness h equal to the depth of the mine. Let the radius of the earth to the bottom of the mine be R, and the mean density up to that point be A. This will not differ appreciably from the mean density of the whole. Let the density of the strata of depth h be 6. Denoting the values of gravity above and below by ga and gb we have a'ER'4= G. s xRO, ] gb=G3 RZJ and ga=Gt(R+h)+G.4zrhE (since the attraction of a shell h thick on a point just outside it is G.41r(R+h)2hi /(R+h)2 = G.47rhb). Therefore ga=G.gzRO(1 - R+ R.a) nearly, Ia= I_2h 3h E gb R A' and R'( - +R+gS) Stations were chosen in the same vertical, one near the pit bank, another 1250 ft. below in a disused working, and a " comparison " clock was fixed at each station. A third clock was placed at the upper station connected by an electric circuit to the lower station. It gave an electric signal every 15 seconds by which the rates of the two comparison clocks could be accurately compared. Two " invariable " seconds pendulums were swung, one in front of the upper and the other in front of the lower comparison clock after the manner of Kater, and these invariables were interchanged at intervals. From continuous observations extending over three weeks and after applying various corrections Airy obtained gb/ga= 1.00005185. Making corrections for the irregularity of the neighbouring strata he found A/S = 2.6266. W. H. Miller made a careful determination of from specimens of the strata, finding it 2.5. The final result taking into account the ellipticity and rotation.of the earth is A=6.565. Von Sterneck's Experiments.(Mitth. des K.U.K. Mil. Geog. Inst. zu Wien, ii., 1882, p 77; 1883, p. 59; vi., 1886, p. 97). R. von Sterneck repeated the mine experiment in 1882-1883 at the Adalbert shaft at Pribram
All the experiments to determine A by the attraction of natural masses are open to the serious objection that we cannot determine the distribution of density in the neighbourhood with any approach to accuracy. The experiments with artificial masses next to be described give much more consistent results, and the experiments with natural masses are now only of use 1'4 Station Due.South of Summit On SfoOe N 2.4 Station Duo IV *Oa z First Station 4 s i f whence W D m N g m 0 0 ~ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \m w l p h h, torsion rod hung by wire 1 g,; x,x, attracted balls hung from its ends; WW, attracting masses. hung by a wire lg. From its ends depended two lead balls xx each 2 in. in diameter. The position of the rod was determined by a scale fixed near the end of the arm, the arm itself carrying a vernier moving along the scale. This was lighted by a lamp and viewed by a telescope T from the outside of the room containing the apparatus. The torsion balance was enclosed in a case and outside this two lead spheres WW each 12 in. in diameter hung from an arm which could turn round an axis Pp in the line of gl. Suppose that first the spheres are placed so that one is just in front of the right-hand ball x and the other is just behind the left-hand ball x. The two will conspire to pull the balls so that the right end of the rod moves forward. Now let the big spheres be moved round so that one is in front of the left ball and the other behind the right ball. The pulls are reversed and the right end moves backward. The angle between its two positions is (if we neglect cross attractions of right sphere on left ball and left sphere on right ball) four times as great as the deflection of the rod due to approach of one sphere to one ball. The principle of the experiment may be set forth thus. Let 2a be the length of the torsion rod, m the mass of a ball, M the mass of a large sphere, d the distance between the centres, supposed the same on each side. Let B be the angle through which the rod moves round when the spheres WW are moved from the first to the second of the positions described above. Let be the couple required to twist the rod through 1 radian. Then 6=4GMma/d2. But can be found from the time of vibration of the torsion system when we know its moment of inertia I, and this can be determined. If T is the period =4x2I/T2, whence G=x2d2Ie/T2Mma, or putting the result in terms of the mean density of the earth 0 it is easy to show that, if L, the length of the seconds pendulum, is put for gx2, and C for 2xR, the earth's circumference, then _ L Mma T2 . C d'I B The original
in showing the existence of irregularities in the earth's superficial strata when they give results deviating largely from the accepted value. II. Determination of the Attraction between two Artificial Masses. Cavendish's Experiment (Phil. Trans., 1798, p. 469).This celebrated experiment was planned by the Rev. John Michell. He completed an apparatus for it but did not live to begin work with it. After Michell's death the apparatus came into the possession of Henry Cavendish, who largely reconstructed it, but still adhered to Michell's plan, and in 17971798 he carried out the experiment. The essential feature of it consisted in the determination of the attraction of a lead sphere 12 in. in diameter on another lead sphere 2 M. in diameter, the distance between the centres being about 9 in,, by means of a torsion balance. Fig. 2 shows how the experiment was carried out. A torsion rod hh 6 ft. long, tied from its ends to a vertical piece mg, was387 on account of the excellence of his methods. His work was undoubtedly very accurate for a pioneer
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Reich's Experiments (Versuche caber die mittlere Dichtigkeit der Erde mittelst der Drehwage, Freiberg, 1838; " Neue Versuche mit der Drehwage," Leipzig
Let Ti be the time of vibration when the masses are in one of the usual attracting positions. Let d be the distance between the centres of attracting mass and attracted ball, and S the distance through which the ball is pulled. If a is the half length of the torsion rod and B the deflection, S=aa. Now let the attracting masses be put one at each end of the torsion rod with their centres in the line through the centres of the balls and d from them, and let T2 be the time of vibration. Then it is easy to show that Sid =a8/d = (Tl -T2)/(TI+T2). This gives a value of 0 which may be used in the formula. The experiments by this method were not consistent, and the mean result was 0=6.25. Baily's Experiment (Memoirs of the Royal Astron. Soc. xiv.).In 18411842 Francis Baily made a long series of determinations by Cavendish's method and with apparatus nearly of the same dimensions. The attracting masses were 12-in. lead spheres and as attracted balls he used various masses, lead, zinc, glass, ivory, platinum, hollow brass, and finally the torsion rod alone without balls. The suspension was also varied, sometimes consisting of a single wire, sometimes being bifilar. There were systematic errors running through Baily's work, which it is impossible now wholly to explain. These made the resulting value of A show a variation with the nature of the attracted masses and a variation with the temperature. His final result A = 5.6747 is not of value compared with later results. Cornu and Baille's Experiment (Comptes rendus, lxxvi., 1873, p. 954; lxxxvi., 1878, pp. 571, 699, 1001; xcvi., 1883, p. 1493).In 187o MM. A. Cornu and J. Baille commenced an experiment by the Cavendish method which was never definitely completed, though valuable studies of the behaviour of the torsion apparatus were made. They purposely departed from the dimensions previously used. The torsion balls were of copper about 100 gm. each, the rod was 50 cm. long, and the suspending wire was 4 metres long. On each side of each ball was a hollow iron sphere. Two of these were filled with mercury weighing 12 kgm., the two spheres of mercury constituting the attracting masses. When the position of a mass was to be changed the mercury was pumped from the sphere on one side to that on the other side of a ball. To avoid counting time a method of electric registration on a chronograph was adopted. A provisional result was A5.56. Boys's Experiment (Phil. Trans., A., 1895, pt. i., p. 1).Professor C. V. Boys having found that it is possible to draw quartz fibres of practically any degree of fineness, of great strength and true in their elasticity, determined to repeat the Cavendish experiment, using his newly invented fibres for the suspension of the torsion rod. He began by an inquiry as to the best dimensions for the apparatus. He saw that if the period of vibration is kept constant, that is, if the moment of inertia I is kept proportional to the torsion couple per radian , then the deflection remains the same however the linear dimensions are altered so long as they are all altered in the same proportion. Hence we are driven to conclude that the dimensions should be reduced until further reduction would make the linear quantities too small to be measured with exactness, for reduction in the apparatus enables variations in temperature and the consequent air disturbances to be reduced, and the experiment in other ways becomes more manageable. Professor Boys took as the exactness to be sought for i in ro,000. He further saw that reduction in length of the torsion rod with given balls is an advantage. For if the rod be halved the moment of inertia is one-fourth, and if the suspending fibre is made finer so that the torsion couple per radian is also one-fourth the time remains the same. But the moment of the attracting force is halved only, so that the deflection against one-fourth torsion is doubled. In Cavendish's arrangement there would be an early limit to the advantage in reduction of rod in that the mass opposite one ball would begin seriously to attract the other ball. But Boys avoided this difficulty by sus-pending the balls from the ends of the torsion rod at different levels and by placing the attracting masses at these different levels. Fig. 3 represents diagrammatic-ally a vertical section of the arrangement used on a scale l of about 1/ro. The torsion rod was a small rect- angular mirror about 2.4 cm. Fig. 3.Diagram of a Section of Professor wide hung by a Boys's Apparatus. quartz fibre about 43 cm. long. From the sides of this mirror the balls were hung by quartz fibres at levels differing by 15 cm. The balls were of gold either about 5 mm. in diameter and weighing about. l3 gm. or about 6.5 mm. in diameter and weighing 2.65 gm. The attracting masses were lead spheres, about ro cm. in diameter and weighing' about 7.4 kgm. each. These were suspended from the top of the case which could be rotated round the central tube, and they were arranged so that the radius to the centre from the axis of the torsion system made 65 with the torsion rod, the position in which the moment of the attraction was a maximum. The torsion rod mirror reflected a distant scale by which the deflection could he read. The time of vibration was recorded on a chrono- graph. The result of the experiment, probably the best yet made, was A=5.527, G=6.658Xro$. Braun's Experiment (Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-naturw. Cl. 64, p. 187, 1896).In 1896 Dr K. Braun, S.J., gave an account of a very careful and excellent repetition of the Cavendish experiment with apparatus much smaller than was used in the older experiments, yet much larger than that used by Boys. A notable feature of the work consisted in the suspension of the torsion apparatus in a receiver exhausted to about 4 mm. of mercury, a pressure at which convection currents almost disappear while " radiometer " forces have hardly begun. For other ingenious arrangements the original
G. K. Burgess's Experiment (Theses presentees a la faculte des sciences de Paris pour obtenir le titre de docteur de l'universite de Paris, i9or).This was a Cavendish experiment in which the torsion system was buoyed up by a float in a mercury bath. The attracted masses could thus be made large, and yet the suspending wire could be kept fine. The torsion beam was 12 cm. long, and the attracted balls were lead spheres each 2 kgm. From the centre of the beam depended a vertical steel rod with a varnished copper hollow float at its end, entirely immersed in mercury. The surface of the mercury was covered with dilute sulphuric acid to remove irregularities due to varying surface tension acting on the steel rod. The size.of the float was adjusted so that the torsion fibre of quartz 35 cm. long had only to carry a weight of 5 to 10 gm. The time of vibration was over one hour. The torsion couple per radian was determined by preliminary experiments. The attracting masses were each ro kgm. turning in a circle 18 cm. in diameter. The results gave A= 5.55 and G=6.64Xro $. Eotvos
Eotvos
Wilsing's Experiment (Publ. des astrophysikalischen Observ. zu Potsdam, 1887, No. 22, vol. Vi. pt. ii.; pt. iii. p. 133).We may perhaps class with the Cavendish type an experiment made by J. Wilsing, in which a vertical " double pendulum " was used in place of a horizontal
11 aft 1911{ills Ilgllllil observed. By taking the time of vibration of the pendulum first as used in the deflection experiment and then when a small weight was removed from the upper end a known distance from the knife edge, the restoring couple per radian deflection could be found. The final result gave 0= 5'579. J. Joly's suggested Experiment (Nature xli., 189o, p. 256).Joly has suggested that G might be determined by hanging a simple pendulum in a vacuum, and vibrating outside the case two massive pendulums each with the same time of swing as the simple pendulum. The simple pendulum would be set swinging by the varying attraction and from its amplitude after a known number of swings of the outside pendulums G could be found. Artificial Mass by Means of the Common Balance. The principle of the method is as follows:Suppose a sphere of mass m and weight w to be hung by a wire from one arm of a balance. Let the mass of the earth be E and its radius be R. Then w = GEm/R2. Now introduce beneath m a sphere of mass M and let d be the distance of its centre from that of m. Its pull increases the apparent weight of m say by bw. Then bw=GMm/d2. Dividing we obtain bw/w=MR2/Ed2, whence E = MR2w/d2bw; and since g = GE/R2, G can be found when E is known. Von Jolly's Experiment (Abhand. der le. bayer. Akad. der Wiss. 2 Cl. xiii. Bd. 1 Abt. p. 157, and xiv. Bd. 2 Abt. p. 3).In the first of these papers Ph. von Jolly described an experiment in which he sought to determine the decrease in weight with increase of height from the earth's surface, an experiment suggested by Bacon (Nov. Org. Bk. 2, 36), in the form of comparison of rates of two clocks at different levels, one driven by a spring , the other by weights. The experiment in the form carried out by von Jolly was attempted by H. Power, R. Hooke, and others in the early days of the Royal Society (Mackenzie, The Laws of Gravitation). Von Jolly fixed a balance at the top of his laboratory and from each pan depended a wire supporting another pan 5 metres below. Two 1-kgm. weights were first balanced in the upper pans and then one was moved from an upper to the lower pan on the same side. A gain of 1.5 mgm. was observed after correction for greater weight of air displaced at the lower level. The inverse square law would give a slightly greater gain and the deficiency was ascribed to the configuration of the land near the laboratory. In the second paper a second experiment was described in which a balance was fixed at the top of a tower and provided as before with one pair of pans just below the arms and a second pair hung from these by wires 21 metres below. Four glass globes were prepared equal in weight and volume. Two of these were filled each with 5 kgm. of mercury and then all were sealed up. The two heavy globes were then placed in the upper pans and the two light ones in the lower. The two on one side were now interchanged and a gain in weight of about 31.7 mgm. was observed. Air corrections were eliminated by the use of the globes of equal volume. Then a lead sphere about 1 metre radius was built up of blocks under one of the lower pans and the experiment was repeated. Through the attraction of the lead sphere on the mass of mercury when below the gain was greater by o.589 mgm. This result gave 0 = 5.692.Experiment of Richarz and Krigar-Menzel (Anhang zu den Abhand. der k. preuss. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, 1898).In 1884 A Konig and F. Richarz proposed a similar experiment which was ultimately carried out by Richarz and 0. Krigar-Menzel. In this experiment a balance was supported somewhat more than 2 metres above the floor and with. scale pans above and below as in vun Jolly's experiment. Weights each 1 kgm. were placed, say, in the top right pan and the bottom left pan.' Then they were shifted to the bottom right and the top left, the 'result being, after corrections for change in density of air displaced through pressure and temperature changes, a gain in weight of 1.2453 mgm. on the right due to change in level of 2.2628 metres. Then a rectangular column of lead 210 cm. square cross section and 200 cm. high was built up under the balance between the pairs of pans. The column was perforatedwith two vertical tunnels for the passage of the wires supporting the lower pans. On repeating the weighings there was now a decrease on the right when a kgm. was moved on that side from top to bottom while another was moved on the left from bottom to top. This decrease was o.1211 mgm. showing a total change due to the lead mass of 1.2453 + 0'1211 = 1.3664 mgm. and this is obviously four times the attraction of the lead mass on one kgm. The changes in the positions of the weights were made automatically. The results gave 0 = 5.05 and G = 6.685 X ro 8. Poynting's Experiment (Phil. Trans., vol. 182, A, 1891, p. 565).In 1878 J. H. Poynting published an account of a preliminary experiment which he had made to show that the common balance was available for gravitational work. The experiment was on the same lines as that of von Jolly but on a much smaller scale. In 1891 he gave an account of the full experiment carried out with a larger balance and with much greater care. The balance had a 4-ft. beam. The scale pans were removed, and from the two arms were hung lead spheres each weighin~,g about 20 kgm. at a level about 120 cm. below the beam. The balance was supported in a case above a horizontal turn-table with axis vertically below the central knife edge, and on this turn-table was a lead sphere weighing 150 kgm.the attracting mass. The centre of this sphere was 30 cm. below the level of the centres of the hanging weights. The turn-table could be rotated between stops so that the attracting mass was first immediately below the hanging weight on one side, and then immediately under that on the other side. On the same turn-table but at double the distance from the centre was a second sphere of half the weight introduced merely to balance the larger sphere and keep the centre of gravity at the centre of the turn-table. Before the introduction of this sphere errors were introduced through the tilting of the floor of the balance room when the turn-table was rotated. Corrections of course had to be made for the attraction of this second sphere. The removal of the large mass from left to right made an increase in weight on that side of about 1 mgm. determined by riders in a special way described in the paper. To eliminate the attraction on the beam and the rods supporting the hanging weights another experiment was made in which these weights were moved up the rods through 30 cm. and on now moving the attracting sphere from left to right the gain on the right was only about mgm. The difference, mgm., was due entirely to change in distance of the attracted masses. After all corrections the results gave 0= 5'493 and G = 6.698 X 10-8. Fined Remarks.The earlier methods in which natural masses were used have disadvantages, as already pointed out, which render them now quite valueless. Of later methods the Cavendish appears to possess advantages over the common balance method in that it is more easy to ward off temperature variations, and so avoid convection currents, and probably more easy to determine the actual value of the attracting force. For the present the values determined by Boys and Braun may be accepted as having the greatest weight and we therefore take Mean density of the earth A= 5'527 Constant of gravitation G = 6.658 X 10-8. Probably 0 = 5.53 and G = 6.66 X 108 are correct to 1 in 500. End of Article: GRAVITATION CONSTANT AND MEAN DENSITY OF THE If you wish, you can link directly to this article.
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