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General Information
In the Old Testament of the Bible the prophets were a succession of men whose inspired utterances molded the shape of Israelite history. The customary classification of the prophetical books of the Bible into Major Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel) and Minor Prophets (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi) is based on the length of the books.
All together the Old Testament prophets voiced a particular way of looking at history and world events. They spoke as the mouthpieces of God, addressing his people and revealing to them his divine plan. They relate the address of God to his people through the processes of history. In admonishing the Israelites, calling them to repentance and redemption, the prophets stressed monotheism, morality, and messianism--themes carried forward into Christianity.
The Old Testament prophets are similar to figures in other cultures of the ancient Near East. In the earlier texts, figures such as Samuel are called not only prophet but seer. The seer knew the technical skills of divination and could predict the course of future events; the trade appears in various surrounding cultures.
The prophets of the other nations were on occasion ecstatic figures--persons who performed their tasks by whipping themselves into a state of ecstatic frenzy. Whether the Israelite prophets were influenced by or even participants in ecstatic prophecy is a subject of scholarly debate. Another facet of the same debate concerns the relationship of the Old Testament prophets to official institutions within the fabric of Israelite society. Some Old Testament prophets may have been cultic functionaries, and others, members of the royal court. Or they may have remained aloof from the institutional forms within which their counterparts in other cultures worked, free to develop criticism of cult or court according to the perception of the moment.
Old Testament prophets expressed their perception in a number of stereotyped forms of speech. One of the most common forms defines the prophetic message not simply as a word but also as an event: "The Word of the Lord came to me. . . ." Also common to the prophets is their ability to intercede for their people. The prophets report their experiences of the call to action in a stereotyped form: commission, objection, reassurance. A typical form of prophetic speech is the oracle, or word from God, in which the expression of divine judgment is prefixed by an indictment that the prophet understands as his own explanation of cause for the divine judgment. In addition to the oracle of judgment, the prophet employs a divine promise for deliverance.
In Christian belief the Holy Spirit "spake through the {Old Testament} prophets." In the New Testament, prophesying, or ecstatic utterance, was regarded as a special gift bestowed on a select number of men and women. It was accorded great respect until the rise of Montanism in the 2d century AD discredited it in the eyes of the orthodox. Thereafter, it was associated primarily with mystics and millenarians, people and sects that were often (but by no means always) labeled as heretical. Among Protestants the Anabaptists and Quakers stress the gift of prophecy. In Islam, Muhammad is believed to be "the Seal of the Prophets," the last and greatest of God's human messengers.
George W. Coats
Bibliography
Beauchamp, Evode, Prophetic Intervention in
the History of Man (1970); Koch, K., The Prophets (1984);
Kraeling, E. G., The Prophets (1969); Kuhl, Curt, The
Prophets of Israel, trans. by R. J. Ehrlich and J. P.
Smith (1960); Robinson, T. H., Prophecy and Prophets in
Ancient Israel, 2d ed. (1978); Sawyer, F., Prophecy and
Prophets of the Old Testament (1987).
A prophet is a spokesman for God. Old Testament prophets were not interpreters of God's will; they uttered the actual words which God gave them. There are two main aspects to their work, forthtelling and foretelling.
There were schools of the prophets, but little is known of them (1Sam. 19:19,20; 2Kings 2:3,5; 4:38; 6:1). There were true and false prophets (Jer. 28:1ff).
The prophets of the Old Testament were of two kinds. The former, who wrote an interpretative history of the background of the period in which the great writing prophets lived and worked. The latter, also called writing prophets, were Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel and the Twelve Minor Prophets.
The word "prophet" comes from the Greek prophetes, from pro ("before" or "for") and phemi ("to speak"). The prophet is thus the one who speaks before in the sense of proclaim, or the one who speaks for, i.e., in the name of (God).
In the OT there are three terms for the prophet: ro'eh, nabi', and hozeh. The first and last are distinguished by nuances bearing on the habitual or temporary character of the vision. Nabi' (he who witnesses or testifies) is best adapted to characterize the prophetic mission.
By inspiration God speaks to the nabi', who has to transmit exactly what he receives. The mode of inspiration is verbal. The Bible depicts the mechanism of inspiration as the act by which God puts words (verba) in the mouth of the sacred writers. God said to Moses: "I will raise them up a prophet from among their brethren, like unto thee, and will put my words (verba) in his mouth" (Deut. 18:18). Similarly to Jeremiah: "I have put my words in thy mouth" (Jer. 1:9). The NT confirms the verbal nature of prophetic inspiration (cf. Gal. 1:11-12; I Cor. 15:1-4; I Thess. 2:13; 4:8).
Yet inspiration does not suppress individuality. It is the miracle of theopneustia (II Tim. 3:16). To communicate his thoughts to men, God uses men of different culture, character, and status in order that his word might be accessible to all men. Inspiration safeguards individuality (cf. Moses in Exod. 3-4; Jeremiah in Jer. 20:14-18, etc.).
In addition there were many other prophets. Moses, who wrote the law of God, was regarded as a nabi' without equal (Deut. 34:10-12). Prophetic voices were also raised in the days of the judges (Judg. 2:1-5; 3:9-11; 4:4; 6:8; I Sam. 3:1). Samuel came as a second Moses (Jer. 15:1; Ps. 99:6), and his work was continued by Gad and Nathan (II Sam. 12 and 24; I Kings 1). After the separation of the ten tribes Ahijah (I Kings 2), Elijah, and Elisha (I Kings 18-19; II Kings 5ff.) call for particular mention.
After four centuries of prophetic silence John the Baptist is the last of the prophets of the old covenant and the precursor of Jesus (Matt. 19:1; cf. Matt. 3:7ff.; Luke 3:16ff.; John 1:23, 29). In addition to the Baptist, the NT also refers to a prophetic ministry exercised by both men and women. After Pentecost, mention is made of Agabus (Acts 2:28; 21:10), Jude and Silas (Acts 15:32), and the four daughters of Philip (Acts 21:8-10). We might also cite Anna the daughter of Phanuel (Luke 2:36).
From a different standpoint we might adopt the following classification. (1) Prophecies already fulfilled. Two examples are the Exile, announced by Hosea, Amos, and Micah in the case of northern Israel (deported to Assyria in 722 B.C.) and Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Amos, and Micah in the case of Judah (exiled in Babylon in 586 B.C.), and of course the coming of Christ himself. (2) Prophecies in process of fulfillment. A good case in point is the restoration of the modern state of israel. The prophecy of Jer. 31:31 (cf. Isa. 27:12-13; Ezek. 37:21) found miraculous fulfillment on May 15, 1948, and the physical resurrection of the Israelite nation, as yet incomplete, is a new and up-to-date guarantee that other prophecies will come to realization. (3) Prophecies not yet fulfilled. We may refer to four. The first is the total recovery of Palestine by all the tribes of Israel (Isa. 27:12-13; Ezek. 37:11-14; Jer. 31:1-5, 31; etc.). The second is the destruction of Israel's enemies (Jer. 30:11; Isa. 17:1-3; Ezek. 38-39). The third is the collective conversion of Israel (Ezek. 37:6b, 10; Zech. 14:4-5; 12:10). The fourth is the establishment of the kingdom of God on earth. Many prophecies describe the coming of the Messiah, the King of Israel, and the restoration of humanity to righteousness, peace, and happiness under his rule (cf. Isa. 2:4; 11:1-10; 65:19-23), the reconstitution of nature (Ezek. 47:13a; 48:1-35; cf. Rom. 8:19-21), and the reestablishment of converted Israel in the prerogatives of its original vocation (cf. Isa. 49:6; Rom. 11:15; Joel 2:28-32; Hab. 2:14; Isa. 55:4-5; Zech. 8:23). Before the kingdom of God is set up, the earth will be the scene of the return and temporary reign of the Messiah (cf. Rev. 20:2b-3, 4b) and Israel will be God's instrument (Zech. 8:13) for the conversion of the nations.
NT prophecy, therefore, was of more than one kind. It included prophetic words given for the improvement, encouragement, consolation, and general benefit of the Christian community (I Cor. 14:3-4). But it also included another dimension, related directly to a special work of the Spirit upon the prophet by which the Spirit revealed to the prophet a word from the risen and exalted Christ (cf. John 16:12-14; Rev. 1:10 with 4:1-2a). When the prophet thus spoke, his word became the command of the Lord (I Cor. 14: 29-30, 37). This part of the prophet's ministry was the result of a direct revelation of an aspect of the divine mind hitherto unknown (Eph. 3:5; Rev. 10:7; 22:6). Like OT prophecy, this new prophetic message was an immediate communication of God's (Christ's) word to his people through human lips (cf. Rev. 16:15; 22:7; see also Rev. 2-3).
Since the prophet was such an authoritative figure and was held in such high regard by the people, abuses were bound to set in. Christ himself predicted that such abuses would arise (Matt. 24:11, 24). Eventually it became necessary for the church to establish regulations that would control not only the prophet's dress and teaching (I Cor. 11:4; 14:29-30), but also how long he could stay in any one place without being judged a false prophet (Hermas, Mandate 11:1-21; Didache 11).
A Lamorte and G F Hawthorne
(Elwell Evangelical Dictionary)
Bibliography
M. Buber, The Prophetic Faith; A. B. Davidson, OT
Prophecy; A. Guillaume, Prophecy and Divination Among the Hebrews and
Other Semites; J. Lindblom, Prophecy in Ancient Israel; J. Skinner,
Prophecy and Religion; W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel; A. C.
Welch, Prophet and Priest in Old Israel; L. J. Wood, The Prophets of
Israel; E. Boring, "How May We Identify Oracles of Christian Prophets
in the Synoptic Tradition?" JBL 91:501-21, and "The Influence of
Christian Prophecy," NTS 25:113-23; W. D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic
Judaism; J. D. G. Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit and "Prophetic 'I' Sayings
and the Jesus of Tradition," NTS 24:175-98; E. E. Ellis, "Luke
11:49-51: An Oracle of a Christian Prophet?" ExpT 74:157, Prophecy and
Hermeneutic in Early Christianity, "The Role of the Christian Prophet
in Acts," in Apostolic History of the Gospel, ed. W. W. Gasque and R.
P. Martin, and "'Spiritual' Gifts in the Pauline Community," NTS
20:128-44; E. Fascher, TDNT, VI, 828-61; G. F. Hawthorne, "Christian
Prophecy and the Sayings of Jesus," SBL Seminar Papers, II, 105-24: D.
Hill, NT Prophecy and "On the Evidence for the Creative Role of
Christian Prophets," NTS 20:262-74; J. M. Meyers and E. D. Freed, "Is
Paul Also Among the Prophets?" Int 20: 40-53.
(Heb. nabi, from a root meaning "to bubble forth, as from a fountain," hence "to utter", comp. Ps. 45:1). This Hebrew word is the first and the most generally used for a prophet. In the time of Samuel another word, ro'eh, "seer", began to be used (1 Sam. 9:9). It occurs seven times in reference to Samuel. Afterwards another word, hozeh, "seer" (2 Sam. 24:11), was employed. In 1 Ch. 29:29 all these three words are used: "Samuel the seer (ro'eh), Nathan the prophet (nabi'), Gad the seer" (hozeh). In Josh. 13:22 Balaam is called (Heb.) a kosem= "diviner," a word used only of a false prophet.
The "prophet" proclaimed the message given to him, as the "seer" beheld the vision of God. (See Num. 12:6, 8.) Thus a prophet was a spokesman for God; he spake in God's name and by his authority (Ex. 7:1). He is the mouth by which God speaks to men (Jer. 1:9; Isa. 51:16), and hence what the prophet says is not of man but of God (2 Pet. 1:20, 21; comp. Heb. 3:7; Acts 4:25; 28:25). Prophets were the immediate organs of God for the communication of his mind and will to men (Deut. 18:18, 19). The whole Word of God may in this general sense be spoken of as prophetic, inasmuch as it was written by men who received the revelation they communicated from God, no matter what its nature might be. The foretelling of future events was not a necessary but only an incidental part of the prophetic office.
The great task assigned to the prophets whom God raised up among the people was "to correct moral and religious abuses, to proclaim the great moral and religious truths which are connected with the character of God, and which lie at the foundation of his government." Any one being a spokesman for God to man might thus be called a prophet. Thus Enoch, Abraham, and the patriarchs, as bearers of God's message (Gen. 20:7; Ex. 7:1; Ps. 105:15), as also Moses (Deut. 18: 15; 34:10; Hos. 12:13), are ranked among the prophets. The seventy elders of Israel (Num. 11:16-29), "when the spirit rested upon them, prophesied;" Asaph and Jeduthun "prophesied with a harp" (1 Chr. 25:3). Miriam and Deborah were prophetesses (Ex. 15:20; Judg. 4:4).
The title thus has a general application to all who have messages from God to men. But while the prophetic gift was thus exercised from the beginning, the prophetical order as such began with Samuel. Colleges, "schools of the prophets", were instituted for the training of prophets, who were constituted, a distinct order (1 Sam. 19:18-24; 2 Kings 2:3, 15; 4:38), which continued to the close of the Old Testament. Such "schools" were established at Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, Gibeah, and Jericho. The "sons" or "disciples" of the prophets were young men (2 Kings 5: 22; 9:1, 4) who lived together at these different "schools" (4:38-41). These young men were taught not only the rudiments of secular knowledge, but they were brought up to exercise the office of prophet, "to preach pure morality and the heart-felt worship of Jehovah, and to act along and co-ordinately with the priesthood and monarchy in guiding the state aright and checking all attempts at illegality and tyranny."
In New Testament times the prophetical office was continued. Our Lord is frequently spoken of as a prophet (Luke 13:33; 24:19). He was and is the great Prophet of the Church. There was also in the Church a distinct order of prophets (1 Cor. 12:28; Eph. 2:20; 3:5), who made new revelations from God. They differed from the "teacher," whose office it was to impart truths already revealed. Of the Old Testament prophets there are sixteen, whose prophecies form part of the inspired canon. These are divided into four groups: (1.) The prophets of the northern kingdom (Israel), viz., Hosea, Amos, Joel, Jonah. (2.) The prophets of Judah, viz., Isaiah, Jeremiah, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah. (3.) The prophets of Captivity, viz., Ezekiel and Daniel. (4.) The prophets of the Restoration, viz., Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.
(Easton Illustrated Dictionary)
Prophecy is a religious phenomenon in which a message is sent by God (or by a god) to human beings through an intermediary, or prophet. The message may contain a reference to future events, but it is often simply a warning, encouragement, or piece of information. Prophecy in its fullest sense thus includes augury, divination, and oracles, which are techniques by which, it is believed, the will of the gods can be learned. Prophets have often spoken in ecstasy, a state that may be induced by various methods, including dance or music. The emphasis of the prophetic message has varied, some prophets stressing the cultic, others the moral, and still others the missionary aspect of religious life. Prophets have appeared throughout history and in virtually all societies.
Christianity inherited the idea of prophecy from Judaism, and Christians interpret Hebrew writings in light of the teachings of Christ, who is considered the prophet promised in Deuteronomy. Indeed, in many respects Jesus was a typical Judaic prophet. Prophecy was recognized as a gift in apostolic times, but it gradually disappeared as the hierarchical structure of the church began to develop toward the end of the 1st century, discouraging individual inspiration. Christian visionaries throughout the ages have often been called prophetic, but they never achieved the status of the great prophets.
John A Saliba
Prophecy, or prediction, was one of the functions of the prophet. It has been defined as a "miracle of knowledge, a declaration or description or representation of something future, beyond the power of human sagacity to foresee, discern, or conjecture." (See Prophet, above.) The great prediction which runs like a golden thread through the whole contents of the Old Testament is that regarding the coming and work of the Messiah; and the great use of prophecy was to perpetuate faith in his coming, and to prepare the world for that event. But there are many subordinate and intermediate prophecies also which hold an important place in the great chain of events which illustrate the sovereignty and all-wise overruling providence of God.
Then there are many prophecies regarding the Jewish nation, its founder Abraham (Gen. 12:1-3; 13:16; 15:5; 17:2, 4-6, etc.), and his posterity, Isaac and Jacob and their descendants (12:7; 13: 14, 15, 17; 15:18-21; Ex. 3:8, 17), which have all been fulfilled. The twenty-eighth chapter of Deuteronomy contains a series of predictions which are even now in the present day being fulfilled. In the writings of the prophets Isaiah (2:18-21), Jeremiah (27:3-7; 29:11-14), Ezekiel (5:12; 8), Daniel (8; 9:26, 27), Hosea (9:17), there are also many prophecies regarding the events which were to befall that people.
There is in like manner a large number of prophecies relating to those nations with which the Jews came into contact, as Tyre (Ezek. 26:3-5, 14-21), Egypt (Ezek. 29:10, 15; 30:6, 12, 13), Ethiopia (Nahum 3:8-10), Nineveh (Nahum 1:10; 2:8-13; 3:17-19), Babylon (Isa. 13:4; Jer. 51:7; Isa. 44:27; Jer. 50:38; 51:36, 39, 57), the land of the Philistines (Jer. 47:4-7; Ezek. 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8; Zeph. 2: 4-7; Zech. 9:5-8), and of the four great monarchies (Dan. 2:39, 40; 7-17:24; 8; 9).
But the great body of Old Testament prophecy relates directly to the advent of the Messiah, beginning with Gen. 3:15, the first great promise, and extending in ever-increasing fulness and clearness all through to the very close of the canon. The Messianic prophecies are too numerous to be quoted. "To him gave all the prophets witness." (Comp. Micah 5:2; Hag. 2:6-9; Isa. 7:14; 9:6, 7; 11:1, 2; 53; 60:10, 13; Ps. 16:11; 68:18.)
Many predictions also were delivered by Jesus and his apostles. Those of Christ were very numerous. (Comp. Matt. 10: 23:24; 11:23; 19:28; 21:43, 44;24; 25: 31-46; 26:17-35, 46, 64; Mark 9:1; 10: 30; 13; 11:1-6, 14; 14:12-31, 42, 62; 16: 17, etc.)
(Easton Illustrated Dictionary)
prophet
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